To achieve an optimal combustion, an even air/fuel ratio in the combustion chamber is required. An optimal combustion leads to reduced amount of emissions due to a more complete combustion, which is an important matter because of the sharpened environmental laws. This can be attained, among other things, by applying entirely variable cam times. To optimize the engines efficiency and its emissions at all workloads and speeds, an active valve control can be applied. This means that the intake and exhaust-valves can be opened and closed at any time, independent of the crankshaft position.

Ryssland har efter det Kalla krigets slut fört en undanskymd roll på den internationella arenan. Efter Sovjetunionens kollaps var Ryssland för svagt för att överta dess roll som global stormakt. Det bipolära världssystemet ersattes av ett unipolärt system med USA som ensam global stormakt. På senare tid har dock Ryssland börjat visa alltmer självförtroende i sitt internationella agerande. Frågan uppstår då om landet har en ambition att åter bli en global stormakt. Studien syftar till att undersöka om Ryssland har dessa ambitioner.

Local charges may induce people to change their pattern of consumption by influencing investments and acts in certain directions. Some charges could for example give people incentives to use less natural resources. This study investigates four different local charges and whether they benefit an economical management with natural resources or not. This is carried out by investigating whether there is a Polarity between local charges that may influence environmental actions or goods, and effective pollution control set to achieve certain nationally determined environmental goals. The study includes two economic perspectives and investigates on the one hand whether local charges counteract governmental subsidies and on the other hand whether the charges vary between the different municipalities since large differences may lead to cost inefficiency.